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Overview
Single humanized models express one human gene of an interacting pair (e.g., PD-1), while double humanized models replace both receptor and ligand (e.g., PD-1 and PD-L1) to achieve full human-to-human signaling compatibility within the mouse system.
Frequently Asked Questions
When is double humanization necessary?
Double humanization is needed when both molecules are species-specific and cross-reactivity between mouse and human versions is poor, providing a fully functional ligand–receptor axis.
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